Development of memory in infancy

Development of memory in infancy Discuss, with reference to appropriate experimental studies, the development of memory in infancy. Memory is the process of encoding, storing and retrieving information. Encoding is the acquiring and the entering of information into the system. Storage is the retaining of the memories over time, and retrieval is recovering the stored memories when required to do so. Memory consists of three systems. Firstly there is the sensory memory, which is the perceptual system which stores only the recently acquired images for long enough to integrate it with the next, therefore producing an apparent motion. Secondly there is short-term memory that is a temporary storage for small quantities of information for a brief time. Finally the long-term memory system holds relatively permanent information. Studying the development of memory in infancy has many benefits, as it helps to show how memory develops over time. This knowledge from research can be applied to different settings, for example an educational setting, where the more a teacher understands about the memory development of children the more they can use this information to guide childrens learning therefore giving the best possible learning outcomes. This essay will discuss the strategies used to help with encoding, storing and retrieving information. To help compare the development of infants memory, studies with older children have been included. Memory strategies are the ways in which people effectively remember information. These strategies include encoding strategies and retrieval strategies. Encoding strategies are used to help enter the information into the memory; this can include rehearsal, organisation and elaboration. Rehearsal refers to the mental repetition of information. Brainerd and Reynas (2002) fuzzy trace theory suggests there are two memory representations. These are verbatim trace and gist trace. The verbatim trace refers to remembering information exactly, whereas gist trace is remembering the general meaning of the information. The gist trace representations last, but the verbatim trace representations leads to more forgetting. Flavell, Beach and Chinsky (1966) studied rehearsal in 5 year, 7 year and 10 year olds. Each age group had 20 children, who were all given a set of 7 pictures. The children were told to try and remember some of the pictures. After a 15 seconds gap, the children were asked to say al oud the pictures they could recall. During the 15 seconds gap a lip reader assessed what they believed each children might have been saying to themselves. They found that two of the 5 year olds, more than half of the 7 year olds, and most of the 10 year olds repeated the pictures to themselves. It was found that rehearsal lead to better recall. Flavell et al. (1966) found that age differences may show the development of strategies used, such as rehearsal. Although some of the children may have been using rehearsal strategies, but may not have moved their lips. McGilly and Siegler (1990) carried out an extension on Flavell et al.s (1966) study, by also asking children to report how they remembered the pictures. They found a high amount of children (74%) reported using rehearsal strategies. However only 39% were observed, by lip reading techniques, using rehearsal strategies. Therefore suggesting that children of all ages use rehearsal, however it may not be as effectively used in you nger children (Smith, Cowie Blades, 2003). This would explain age differences in recall in Flavell et al.s (1966) study. Ornstein, Naus and Liberty (1975) compared the rehearsal strategies of 7 year olds and adults. Participants were given a word to remember every 5 seconds, and asked to say aloud what they were thinking. They found that children repeated the word until the next word was given, then they would repeat the next word. Whereas adults repeated the word until they were given the second word, then they would repeat both words. Therefore showing that adults effectively used organization, but 7 year old children did not use this at all. This is important in showing that children use rehearsal strategies, but they lack the knowledge of how to effectively use such strategies. A study by Naus, Ornstein and Aivano (1977) taught 8 year olds a strategy of rehearsing in groups of three. They found that the 8 year olds could recall the same amount as 12 year olds, after being taught the chunking strategy. Therefore younger children can do this, but the organization of rehearsal does not occur naturally at these ages. Organisation, or chunking, is the grouping of information in an effective way to help with encoding. Moely, Olson, Halwes Flavell (1969) showed children a set of pictures that were in a random order in laid out in front of them. The set included pictures of animals and furniture, for example. The children were instructed to learn all the pictures and if it helped them they were allowed to rearrange the pictures. It was found that the children of 10 years and older had effectively used organisation strategies, as 10 year olds had categorised pictures according to whether it was an animal, or a piece of furniture, etc. As with rehearsal strategies, the younger children were not effectively using the organisation strategy. The children use this strategy, but do not seem to have developed knowledge of how it is best to be used, like the older children had. Elaboration is the strategy when people make associations between given information to help with encoding and the subsequent recall of this information. Foley, Wilder, McCall and Van Vorst (1993) gave 6 and 9 year olds verbal images to help them to recall pairs of words. The childrens recall was better if the image was basic, yet memorable. Pressley and Levin (1980) found that children of 7 years could use elaboration if an effective image was given with the pair of words, of which one was English and the other was its Spanish equivalent. This led to children learning the words better. Therefore children can use elaboration as an encoding strategy when given support, but the use of elaboration by themselves had not yet developed fully. As Buckhalt, Mahoney and Paris (1976) found when children first begin to use elaborations they use simple, static elaboration, whereas older children use active elaborations. Active elaborations are images that are distinctive and therefore remembered better, allowing for a better recall. Leichtman and Ceci (1995) studied the reliability of childrens testimony. The study was set in a preschool, where a stranger, Sam Stone, came in for a day. Some of the children were then given suggestive interviews every week for four weeks after. All of the children were interviewed on the fifth week, by a new interviewer, who had not seen Sam Stone or any of the previous interviews. The children were firstly asked for a report of what happened on the day of Sam Stones visit, and then asked questions. The leading questions had led a high majority of the 3-4 year olds to make false claims, although the 5-6 year olds were less likely to do this. Therefore younger childrens encoding is effected by what is inferred by other people, for example the leading questions in Leichtman and Cecis (1995) study inferred that Sam Stone had done something wrong, this lead to 72% of the 3-4 year olds saying he had done it, and 44% even claiming to have seen him do it. The older children were not affe cted by the leading questions as much, therefore showing that the encoding for the older children may have been better as they felt secure in what they could recall. Retrieval strategies are the ways in which people recall information from long-term memory. Kreutzer, Leonard and Flavell (1975) studied how 5 and 10 year olds would retrieve information from long-term memory. They used a story and asked the children how they could remember the answer. Kreutzer et al. (1975) found all 10 year olds could think of one way at least, whereas only half the 5 year olds could do this. Therefore the 5 year olds had not all developed effective retrieval strategies. Kobasigawa (1974) used 24 pictures, from 8 categories, for children of 6, 8 and 11 years of age to learn. Along with the pictures the children were shown 8 cue cards, one for each category. Later on the children were shown the cue cards and asked to recall the earlier pictures. A third of the 6 year olds used the cue cards, whereas most of the older groups did this. The 11 year olds only effectively used the cue cards, by using them to help name all the pictures they could remember from that catego ry. The 6 and 8 year olds who used the cue cards, only named one picture from each category. Therefore suggesting that the 6 year olds had not developed the knowledge of how to use cue cards. The 8 year olds knew to use the cue cards, but they didnt know exactly how to use them. Therefore full knowledge of the usefulness of cue cards must develop later on, as the 11 year olds could use them effectively. Retrieval cues, such as cue cards, are strong aids to recall, according to Nelson (1990) people have no early memories because verbal cues are used as retrieval cues. Simcock and Hayne (2002) assessed the language skills of infants of 27, 33 and 39 months, and then tested the infants verbally and non-verbally. The infants were then tested on their recall at 6 or 12 months later. Simcock and Hayne (2002) found retention on both verbal and non-verbal recall, however non-verbal memory recall was better than verbal. They also found that verbal recall reflected the verbal abilities at the time of encoding, therefore showing that encoding is important in the recall of information. Overall many of the basic processes are seen at birth, and are crucial from the early days. Memory strategies develop from the second year, but only become predominant between 5 to 7 years old, these strategies include rehearsal, organisation and elaboration. With age comes the development of quality, frequency, flexibility and the effective use of these strategies. Changes in the efficiency with age of encoding can be seen, as at the age of 2-5 years children can hold from 2 to 4 pieces of information in short-term memory, and at 7 years this is increased to 5 pieces of information. This is through the effective use of rehearsal, as this helps the child to become better at registering information as well as organising it and therefore helping to make storage and retrieval easier. Meta-cognitive skills refer to knowing that you know. Implicit knowledge of meta-cognition skills can be seen later on in infancy, whereas explicit knowledge develops from the age of 5 to 15. In general children under-report, therefore specific questioning leads to greater reporting and prevents the information from decay. To increase retrieval of information in infants it is important to encourage them to think deeply about what they are being asked to remember (Butler, Gross Hayne, 1995). The phrasing of the question can clearly lead children into the answer they think the interviewer wants, as Leichtman and Cecis (1995) study has shown. An important area to study in memory is forgetting, as a lot can be learnt about memory from what is not remembered as well as what is. For example, Hartshorn et al. (1998) found that infants aged between 2 and 18 months exhibited retention after the shortest test delays. They also found as the interval increased the younger infants were the first to forget, this is determined by experience. This study shows that forgetting is affected by experience; therefore what is remembered must also be affected by experience. Research into memory development in infants needs to take into account the biological side, as the brain is still changing and developing itself and plays a huge role in memory. References Butler, S., Gross, J., Hayne, H. (1995). The effect of drawing on memory performance in young children. Developmental Psychology, 31, p. 597-608. Brainerd, C. J., Reyna, V. F. (2002). Fuzzy-trace theory and false memory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, p. 164-169. Buckhalt, J.A., Mahoney, G. J., Paris, S. G. (1976). Efficiency of self-generated elaborations by EMR and nonretarded children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 81, p. 93-96. Flavell, J. H., Beach, D. R., Chinsky, J. M. (1966). Spontaneous verbal rehearsal in a memory task as a function of age. Child Development, 37, p. 283-299. Foley, M. A., Wilder, A., McCall, R., Van Vorst, R. (1993). The consequences for recall of childrens ability to generate interactive imagery in the absence of external supports. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56, p. 173-200. Hartshorn, K., Rovee-Collier, C., Gerhardstein, P., Bhatt, R. S., Klein, P. J., Aaron, F., Wondoloski, T. L., Wurtzel, N. (1998). Developmental changes in the specificity of memory over the first year of life. Developmental Psychobiology, 33, p. 61-78. Kobasigawa, A. (1974). Utilization of retrieval cues by children in recall. Child Development, 45, p. 127-134. Kreutzer, M. A., Leonard, C., Flavell, J. H. (1975). An interview study of childrens knowledge about memory. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 40, p. 1-58. Leichtman, M., Ceci, S. (1995). The effects of stereotypes and suggestions on preschoolers reports. Developmental Psychology, 31, p. 568-578. McGilly, K., Siegler, R. S. (1990). The influence of encoding and strategic knowledge on childrens choices among serial recall strategies. Developmental Psychology, 26, p. 931-941. Moely, B. E., Olson, F. A., Halwes, T. G., Flavell, J. H. (1969). Production deficiency in young childrens clustered recall. Developmental Psychology, 1, p. 26-34. Naus, M. J., Ornstein, P. A., Aivano, S. (1977). Developmental changes in memory: The effects of processing time and rehearsal instructions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 23, p. 237-251. Nelson, K. (1990). Remembering, forgetting, and childhood amnesia. In R. Fivush J. A. Hudson (Eds.), Knowing and remembering in young children. P. 301-306. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Ornstein, P. A., Naus, M. J., Liberty, C. (1975). Rehearsal and organizational processes in childrens memory. Child Development, 46, p. 818-830. Pressley, M., Levin, J. R. (1980). The development of mental imagery retrieval. Child Development, 61, p. 973-982. Simcock, G., Hayne, H. (2002). Breaking the barrier: Children do not translate their preverbal memories into language. Psychological Science, 13, p. 225-231. Smith, P. K., Cowie, H., Blades, M. (2003). Understanding Childrens Development (4th Edition). Blackwell.

Can Computers replace Teachers?…No Essay

I don’t believe it can be true! I will now justify my reasons. Teacher is the best guide of a child.One machine can do the work of 50 ordinary men. But no machine can do the work of one extra-ordinary man.and teachers are extraordinary It would be easier for a computer to build informative children but to repair a broken one a teacher is needed.. These days there is an onslaught of technology on the modern classroom. Teachers, administrators, parents, and students alike are being told that technology is the whetstone with which we can all sharpen our education system. Technology can open doors, expand minds, and change the world. That may be true, but it’s not the panacea that it’s been made out to be. As much innovation as the iPad may bring to the classroom, it’s not going to replace a teacher anytime soon. In fact, the influx of technology like iPads means there is a greater need for teachers. We need teachers who are part early adopter, part integrator , and part mad scientist. The modern teacher is willing to take chances and able to figure out just not how technology works, but how it works for each student, and where its use is most appropriate.A computer can never do all these. I too believe that personalized tech-infused learning is the future of education. However, There is a problem.It’s not about the technology. Rather, the sleek and ever more powerful devices that are coming down the pipeline are simply one part of a teacher’s toolkit. The technology is not the lesson, it is there to enhance the lesson. Our classrooms are changing, and without a doubt they will look quite different in five or ten years than they do today. New technologies are being developed quickly, and with so many different trends taking hold, it is yet to be seen what will be shaken out and what will stick. BUT One thing we feel strongly about: teachers aren’t going anywhere. Whatever word you choose – teacher, tutor, preceptor, or something else – the role a teacher plays in the classroom is huge. Everyone knows this on a personal level, and can identify a teacher or mentor who has had influence on us or changed our trajectories in a positive way. They encourage students when they struggle, and inspire them to set and reach for their goals. They are role models, leading by example and giving direction when necessary. A computer can give information, but a teacher can lend a hand, or an ear, and discern what’s necessary for a student to succeed, and to want to succeed. A computer is also unable to meet the emotional needs of the students. While  teache can relate to their her students by their past experience as they too are humans. Teacher can solve a child’s problem but of course computer can’t solve a child’s problem. A computer cannot keep order in a classroom so what would keep the students behaving? They would only misbehave more when someone isn’t there to tell them that what they are doing is wrong! So yes, technology is going to play a critical role in the future of education. But not as big a role as that of a teacher.

The Theme of Justice in Frankenstein Essay - 942 Words

How important is the theme of justice in Frankenstein. Refer closely to the creation scene and Justines trial scene. Justice is defined as justice is the administration of law; especially : the establishment or determination of rights according to the rules of law or equity which can be interpreted as adhering to laws of both a natural and civilised level. In Frankenstein many of the fundamental laws of both humanity and the world we live in are broken. Creation in he Christian faith is a marvel that only one being or person has the right to control. The all loving, all powerful God. However victor is the creator of the creature and this breaks the basis of Christian belief and crossed scientific boundaries even in the mind.†¦show more content†¦Alas he does not and justice proceeds on Justine. Shelley persists in representing Frankenstein as feeling genuine heartfelt remorse, A thousand times rather would I have confessed myself guilty of the crime ascribed to Justine but this is not as genuine as it may seem as Shelley does not proceed to describe Frankensteins sorry with a confession. Instead he goes on with more lies and deceits. Shelley intended these c hain of events to be the worst behaviour of Victor Frankenstein, although more people go on to die and in arguably a more horrific and gothic fashion, on this occasion he lies to his friends, family, the court and just about fails on every natural law of human kindness and responsibility. He is being unjust. This is one major demonstration of how Victor has created a being surpassing his power and comprehension and this is the other major demonstration of unjust actions in the novel. Several themes seem to run through Shelleys Frankenstein, some obvious, others subtle. The most widely heralded theme is the idea that ignorance is bliss. In Shelleys time, the power of human reason, through science and technology, challenged many traditional precepts about the world and mans relationship with his creator. Yet at theShow MoreRelatedWhen The Word â€Å"Justice† Comes To Mind, Most People Believe1392 Words   |  6 Pages When the word â€Å"justice† comes to mind, most people believe that justice means what is right or what is the beneficial to do. Justice versus injustice, right versus wrong, and good versus bad, are essentially synonyms of one another. Yet what is considered justice for one person may not be justice for another. It is the reason why there are the laws of our land to abide by, and then there are criminals—one criminal may believe that what he did was right, but is then arrested because the law tellsRead MoreInsert Surname 3.. St udent’S Name. Professor’S Name. Course1590 Words   |  7 PagesInsert Surname 3 Student’s Name Professor’s Name Course Number Date Love, Family, Crime and Justice ​Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein explores several themes that define what it is to be a human. Victor Frankenstein perceived the monster he created as an evil demon though the book prompts learners to see the whole story from the monster’s perspective. Learners will be forced to sympathize with the monster as the book unfolds to showcase how he is alienated from a typical family after Victor declinedRead MoreHow The Romantic Period Was Characterised By Political And Social Upheavals1318 Words   |  6 Pagesthe will of Zeus. In a rage, Zeus chained him to a mountain peak in the Caucasus. Prometheus was used as a prototype of the modern scientist in the 19th Century. His character defied the authority of gods. This set the tone for Mary Shelley s Frankenstein . 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the road book vs movie - 922 Words

ENG.2 5/23/2011 The Road The Road was both a phenomenal book and film. While reading The Road I was both intrigued and interested as to how Hollywood would portray this story, and after seeing the movie I was impressed with how closely the film followed the book. Though the book was enticing and unusual the movie quickly surpassed the book in my opinion. Though the movie followed the book closely, there were some differences such as the amount of flashbacks the father has, the illusion of hope, and the play out of certain events. A long time has passed since the idea that â€Å"The book is better than the movie† was accepted without question. Most of the time, if the movies follow an original script and there is no book version to†¦show more content†¦All in all, the movie followed the book closely, however there were still some differences. I liked how the movie was be able to include the most important events and was impressed with how well it was being able to be portrayed. The story is still great and I was happy that there was not a major focus on the cannibals and their presence in the world. Also, the casting is perfect and the acting of a very high order. It was amazing. Viggo sold me at the last moment with that weak, hopeless declaration, We will survive this. He sounded so beat down and so lost that my heart skipped a beat. A lot of times Hollywood is unable to really capture the author’s initial ideas, but I feel in this movie Hollywood hit the nail on the head and capture d just Cormac McCarthy was trying to portray. After reading a book and watching a movie, I realized humans think we are kings of the world, that our hold on this planet is eternal. But its not true. There are many catastrophes, man-made and otherwise, that could befall us and wipe us from the face of the Earth. The Earth would eventually recover. Humans wont get that chance. 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